外国語教育における用例について考える 2000年10月FLTA
言語D2 大谷 啓明
1.用例とは？
□用例の形態（辞書の見だし、小見出しよりは大きい単位で自由度がある）
○フレーズ
○例文
○テキストの部分または全体
○kwicコンコーダンスなどの分析を通して得られた結果
□用例が用いられる場面・目的
テキスト、辞書、文法書、テスト等の素材、教室内の発話
学習者の発話のためのモデルやインプット、各種説明（文法説明、学習者の発話の訂正例なども含む）のため
□用例のソース
○communicationを直接の目的としないinvented example （即興的な発話から教科書の文章や発話例のように周到に考えられたものまで また一次的なものから伝統的に教育の中で再生産されてきたものまで）
○教室内でコミュニケーションの一環として自然な文脈の中で生じた発話
○教室の外部で他の目的のためになされた現実のさまざまな発話（話し言葉、書き言葉、様々なジャンル、レジスターetc.の発話）
2. authenticityという概念
Authenticityをめぐる議論
1.外国語教育におけるauthenticity
(1)Widdowson (1990 Aspects of Language Teaching)
○目的と手段を混同してはいけない
目的＝natural language use (form<meaning, bottom down<top down)
手段＝最終目標としてfocus on meaningを目指すために行うこと。ここではfocus on formが必要条件となる
目的が自然な言語使用であってもその過程において自然な言語を材料とする必然性は必ずしもない。確かにauthenticな材料は動機面では有利だが目標達成するために効果があり学習者にaccessibleなものなら必ずしもauthenticでなくてもよい。
○"Authenticity of language in the classroom is bound to be, to some extent, an illusion.(p.44)"
教室内の活動はしょせん人工的。模倣的なもので教室外の世界そのものではない。逆に教育の本質は最初から自然の欠陥を補う人工的なもの。また意味は記号そのものではなくてそれを運用する際に発話者によって特定の文脈の中でnegotiateされて生まれるものなので、仮にauthenticな母語話者の発話を材料にしていも運用能力が完全でない学習者の発話はこのレベルでauthenticには成り得ない。その意味でもauthenticityは結局illusionである。
(2)Breen (1985) ４つのauthenticity
1. Authenticity of the texts which we may use as input data for our students
2. Authenticity of the learners' own interpretations of such texts
3. Authenticity of tasks conductive to language learning
4. Authenticity of the actual social situation of the classroom language
2. 言語研究におけるauthenticityの必要性
(a)Stubbs(1996)
○'Language should be studied in actual, attested, authentic instances of use, not as intuitive, invented, isolated sentences.'
○「authentic dataとはテキストそのものを指し、意味というものはテキスト全体に分散しているからテキスト全体を言語研究の対象にすべき。データに修正を加えるべきではない」
「科学者が理論とデータを同時に作るのはナンセンスだが言語学者はそれをやっている」
(b) Sinclair (1991)
コーパスには確かに異様、特殊な例、文脈から切り離しにくい例が数多くある。この中から典型的な例を探すという問題が目下の課題であるが、それが文脈のないinvented exampleを復活させる口実にはならない。応用言語学者の中には例文をinventしたりadaptする方法を捨てることに抵抗もある者も多いが今までの多くの出版物の改訂が必要。ただし例文の修正は部分的に行う(Cobuild)姿勢。
3. 用例をめぐる問い 資料に基づくディスカッション
□用例の提示の形態：フレーズか例文かテキストか？
□用例のauthenticity（上の1のレベル）は必要か？それは短期的、長期的学習効果の点で有利か不利か？
□用例は学習者にとってとっつきやすい（accessibilityが高い）ものにすべきか？これと用例のリアリティはどの程度両立しうるか？
□学習者の学ぶ用例はなるべく発展性があり応用がきく(productivity, valencyがある）ものの方がよいか？学習者のレベルに応じて用例の質は変わるべきか？
□ある語や表現などの用例はできるだけコーパスのtypicalな用法を反映したものであるべきか？
□実例を用いる場合、基のデータに何らかの理由で修正を加えることはよいか？加える場合はどのような修正が必要か？
（参考文献）
Biber el al. 1999 Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English Longman
Breen, M.P. 1985 'Authenticity in the language classroom' Applied Linguistics 6/1
Sinclair, J. 1991 Corpus Concordance Collocation Oxford U.P.
Stubbs, M. 1996 Text and Corpus Analysis Blackwell
Widdowson, H.G. 1990 Aspects of Language Learning Oxford U.P.
参考資料
1. help各用法の用法の実際
□国公私立大学入試問題（長文、文法素材過去３年分）
A help O (to) do total 137(help O do:34 help O to do:103)
動詞の内訳
understand(7), become(5), find(3), get(vi)(3), do(3), learn(2), grow(2), determine(2), pick up(2), formulate(2), broaden, think, come, celebrate, assimilate, combat, decide, focus, raise, remember, see, succeed, predict, change, climb, support, pick out, take care of, read, follow, escape, live, transmit, engage, fight, adapt, better, beat, design, develop, earn, evaluate, get rid of, look for, pass, plan, sort, stand, think, stick, survive, translate, achieve, build, control, cope with, define, interpret, move, look, analyze, decide, change, improve, increase, lose, process, recognize, shift, succeed, choose, digest, prove, steal, feel, collect, lead, make, realize, recover, deal with, draw, learn, relax, understand, die, survive, solve...
B help O with〜:total 7
with〜の内訳
anything else, schoolwork, math, the first problem, the many jobs, assignment, her luggage
C help (to) do total 125 (help do:71 help to do 54)
動詞の内訳（意味の系統別）
make(9), shape(5), create(4), build(2), form(2), found(2), establish, design, forge, lay
prevent(4), save(4), protect(2), avoid(2), cover, shelter
keep(4), survive, sustain, preserve, assure, ensure
turn(4), develop(2), change, improve, promote, adjust, strengthen, impoverish, broaden, translate
reduce(3), increase, lower, lessen,
determine(4), locate(3), define, prove, find out,
explain(7)
prepare(2), bring about(2), cause(2), bring, provide, give, identify
pay(2), clean(2), have(2), deal with, look after, spread, defeat, digest, launch, loose, relieve, push, carry, put out, recover, redirect, guide, solve, spread, be, buy, confuse, dig, fill out, remove
□BNC(100 million words help=v random 200)
A help O (to) do total:39 (help O do:26 help O to do:13)
動詞の内訳
find(2), control(2), get on, get better, get to, get in, get back to, understand, realise, recognize, develop, care, complete, keep, concentrate, save, do, choose, compete, fill, return, dress, bridge, answer, train, discover, encourage, determine, put, chew, cackle, avoid, get started, talk, establish
B help O with〜 total:3
with〜の内訳 her round, the crisps, work
C help (to) do total: 47(help to do 39 help do 8)
動詞の内訳（意味の系統別）
explain(5)
keep(4), maintain, sustain, ensure
prevent(3)
reduce(2), alleviate, reinforce, improve, turn
provide(3), give
take(2), bring, convey, put, redistribute
make, regenerate, establish, open up(2)
remove, burn, poison, co-ordinate, smooth, emphasise, find, define, resolve, achieve, police, guide, suggest, add,
2.用例の出典
A help O (to) do
□(A1)Will you help me carry this box?（桐原書店高校新総合英語 旺文社ロイヤル英文法などの文法参考書、研究社カレッジライトハウス和英もほぼ同様のcarryを使った文を掲載）
□(A2)Something went wrong with his machine so I helped him fix it. (Cobuild English Usage)
□(A3)America's priority is to help nations defend themselves.(Cobuild English Dictionary)
□(A4)I helped the old man get off the bus.（小学館和英プログレッシブ「助ける」「手伝う」）
□(A5)"Come and help me choose some clothes, Crystal." (BNC)
□(A6)Many members of society, most governments, religious groups and the medical profession are against the idea of helping someone to die or giving someone the right to choose to die.（熊本大 長文読解）
□(A7)Some helpful bacteria that live in your body help you to digest the food you eat.（東大後期 長文読解）
□(A8)"Oh, but the advertisements help you to choose what's best, don't they?"（和歌山大学 対話文）
□(A9)They help us look at situations and fears in our daily lives. （宮崎大学 長文読解 they=dreams）
□(A10)Study, teaching, the pursuit of a hobby, or simply business can all help one get below the surface of international hotels, sycophantic guides, haggling shopkeepers, and picture postcard exotica. （静岡県立大学 長文読解）
□(A11)Churches help Eritreans develop media policy.(BNC)
□(A12)The RAF Benevolent Fund made an initial contribution towards my clothes, and Mr Grice, their representative, would come round after work and help my mother fill in the forms. (BNC)
□(A13)Now in Britain farmers can buy scientific aids which help them to control these inputs.(BNC)
B help O with〜
□(B1)I helped him with his homework. （大修館ジーニアス フレーズのみ、研究社コロケーション、小学館プログレッシブ和英「助ける」研究社カレッジライトハウス和英「手伝う」 その他多数の文法書、参考書）
□(B2)Do you want me to help you with your assignment?（センター試験 文法）
□(B3)A man is helping the police with their enquiries.(OALD)(リーダーズではenquiries→inquiriesとした以外は全て同じ文)
□(B4)Will you help me with the loan on the house? （研究社コロケーション）
□(B5)Come and help me with the crisps. (BNC)
□(B6)"Good afternoon, sir. Is there something I can help you with?" （岡山理科大学 対話文）
□(B7)Women who work often expect their husbands to help them with the many jobs that need to be done in a home. （茨城大学 長文読解）
□(B8)Because I'm going to help her with her paper round tomorrow so she can get it done early the people don't come before 7 and we've got to be at the bus terminus by 8.30; because that's when we've arranged to meet our friends of course and so if I help her with her round she can get it done in time. (BNC)
C help (to) do
□(C1)The right style of swimsuit can help to hide, minimise or emphasise what you want it to.(Cobuild)
□(C2)The medicine will help to relieve your stomachache.（旺文社ロイヤル英文法）
□(C3)Vitamins and nutrients help to prevent and fight disease and are essential for the healing of wounds and bone fractures. (BNC)
□(C4)"Exercise has lots of different effects" that can help protect your heart, says Dr. Paul Thompson. （東京大学 後 長文読解）
□(C5)In addition, recycling often helps to save energy and reduce pollution.（センター試験）
□(C6)The fact that the team is owned by the media giant Yomiuri certainly helps to explain their domination of the airwaves. （慶應義塾大学 長文読解）
□(C7)Segmented labour market theories help to explain the disadvantaged position of women and ethnic minorities in employment, and it is to these groups that we now turn.(BNC)
□(C8)Simple brochures help provide additional information. (BNC)
□(C9)As the images were changed so, too, were age relations, since the former not only are always expressions of the latter, but also clearly help to sustain them.(BNC)
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary(OALD) 5th Edition (1995) Oxford
Cobuild English Dictionary 1995 HarperCollins
Cobuild English Usage 1992 HarperCollins
英和活用大辞典（コロケーション辞典）1995 研究社
ジーニアス英和辞典 ２版 1994 大修館
リーダーズ英和辞典 ２版 1999 研究社
プログレッシブ和英辞典 ２版 1993 小学館
カレッジライトハウス和英辞典 1995 研究社
ロイヤル英文法 1988 旺文社
高校総合英語 桐原書店
3. BNCから引いた用例の出典の詳細及びテキスト、A10のテキスト
<****>＝用例として抜き出した文が入る場所
A5 BNC The suitcase kid. Wilson, J. London: Doubleday, 1993, pp. 7-155.
"No, Andy's the star model," said Carrie. "Here, let's dress her up like a real model, eh? <*****> And we'll make her up and give her a posh hair-do. Would you like that, Andy?"
A11 BNC Action. World Assoc for Christian Comm, 1991, pp. ??. headline
A10 静岡県立大学(1997)のテキスト（一部）
Many things can contribute to building a sense of world citizenship. The development of expert knowledge and the growth of a reasonably informed and sympathetic citizenry both help. The myriad of contacts in the economic and cultural fields may be even more important, because they all involve shared interests. Travel abroad is, of course, important, though not the brief, casual trip in which the tourist first peers at the wild animals in Kenya and then at the tamer fauna in Kashmir or Bali. To be of value, travel must go deeper than the tourist level. <****>.
A12 BNC Rich. Raine, Craig. London: Faber & Faber Ltd, 1984, pp. 13-101.
When I was eleven, I won a scholarship to a local public school where Robin, another rich cousin was already a pupil. His father, my uncle John, had made his money by selling birds' eggs. The scholarship paid my tuition fees and half my board. The remainder was paid for partly by the country education authority, partly by my mother 's long stints at the sewing machine. <****> My father's way of showing his gratitude was to collect money for the Fund on Wings Day which commemorates the Battle of Britain. He was busy trying to break all records in the charity business. No one was allowed to pass without a contribution: he knew everyone and covered the clubs, the pubs, the chip shops, the football ground. Each day he'd return with ten cans heavy with coins, five to a hand, the strings cutting his fingers. He broke all records, but its was my mother who filled in the forms.
A13 BNC Decisions in geography: the United Kingdom. Farleigh Rice, W. Harlow: Longman Group UK Ltd, 1985, pp. 4-137.
The climate, the soil and the land are all which affect the size of farmers' crops or the amount of milk, beef or wool they produce. <****>
B5 BNC New Musical Express. London: Holborn Publishing Group, 1991, pp. ??.
Leave that clock alone. <****>
B8 BNC Persephone. Joseph, Jenny. Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe books Ltd, 1986, pp. ??. "Mum, can I stay at Julie's?" <****> We're all going swimming Julie's lending me a costume. She's got two, well, actually, one's her sister's but she doesn't use it any more and Mum we went to the fair. Julie's big bother gave us the money. It was terrific. ....
C3 BNC BBC Good Food. London: Redwood Publishing Company, 1991, pp. ??.
Patients recover quickly if they are well nourished. <****> Many patients, especially the old and economically weak, are already malnourished when they go into hospital. And people suffering from a severe injury or illness usually need to regain weight
C7 BNC Reconstructing the welfare state. Johnson, N. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester & Wheatsheaf, 1990, pp. ??.
<****> It should be noted that the purpose is not to discuss the various dimensions of inequality affecting women and minority groups. What needs to be considered is whether these troupes are better or worse off as a result of ten years of Conservative rule. Have inequalities of gender and race been widened or narrowed?
C8 BNC Action. World Assoc for Christian Comm, 1991, pp. ??.
The narrator uses the local dialect where necessary. Performances are accompanies by live or taped music, demonstrations and an opportunity for questions from the audience. <****>
C9 BNC Images of youth. Hendrick, Harry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 157-259. .
Adolescence, like infancy, childhood, and old age, is real. What matters is what is thought of it, how it is seen, what is done to it, and what is expected from it. This study has been about mainly the Edwardian moment. In the broadest terms, it has been concerned with one aspect of youth history: how and why, and with what consequences for age relations, middle-class reformers put together a number of images of working-class adolescents. These pages have described and examined some of the ways in which groups of adults perceived young workers, and how and why they sought to train, supervise, and control them. However, they did not seek to achieve these ends merely for reasons of age prejudice, though this was always an important consideration; indeed, many of the other reasons grew out of this prejudice. But of greater significance, ultimately, was the attempt by youth workers, social scientists, educationalists, and politicians to solve a number of social problems whose effects stretched well beyond young people themselves, involving as they did the economy, labour, racial hygiene, and political stability. In pursuit of their ends, reformers and others were compelled to alter their perceptions of (and attitudes toward) young people and, therefore, the images which they used to order and define them. <****> But it can hardly be overemphasized that the new images were not constructed in any artificial, mechanistic sense, separate, as it were, from attitudes and real social relationships on the one hand and on the other, the economic and political structures of society.
4.コーパスから用例を引く際の加工に対する辞書、文法書のスタンス
○Cobuild English Dictionary(1995)
The majority of the examples in the dictionary are taken word for word from one of the texts in The Bank of English. Occasionally, we have made very minor changes to them, so that they are more successful as dictionary examples. Throughout the whole dictionary, there are about 100,000 examples. Because this is a completely new edition of the dictionary, we have chosen examples which we have never used before in any of our dictionaries or other reference books. This makes the dictionary a valuable resource for both students and teachers, showing how the words have been used in books, newspapers, magazines, broadcasting, and conversation. Nearly all the words and meanings in the dictionary have at least one example...
....で縮約は有り
○Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE) Third Edition(1995)
All the examples in this dictionary are based on what we find in the spoken and written corpus material in the Longman Corpus Network. Some examples are taken direct from the corpus; some have been changed slightly from the corpus to remove difficult words; and some have been written specially for the entry. In each case, the examples are carefully chosen to help show the ways n which a word or phrase is normally used.
○Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English(LGSWE) (1999)
コーパス(BNC)のsubdivision（ジャンル）を載せる（conv, fict, news, academic)。"long examples might distract rather than help the reader"の場合はtruncated exampleには†を記しなるべく文の先頭か末尾を抜いて途中を抜かないようにする（抜く場合は<...>で表記する）。非文や疑わしい文、比較対照のためにinventした文は*,?を記したり出典を記さないことでauthenticな例と区別する。